Years ago, I introduced my students to a version of the Yurok stick game, and we had mixed success. Mastering the game was tricky because of the unique “ball” in my adaptation—two tennis balls tied together with a sock, unlike the traditional carved-wood-and-braided-string ball. My students gave it mixed reviews; many wished it felt more like hockey, but hockey is a very different sport.

Building on that experience, I later came across Double Ball, which immediately reminded me of the Yurok stick game because of its many similarities. However, Double Ball was primarily a women’s game, while the Yurok stick game was played by men. This time, by focusing more on the fundamentals of lifting, passing, and flicking the specialized ball, and by introducing many small-sided games instead of one large game, every student had more opportunities to participate and shape the outcome. The result was a smashing success. The shared features between the two games allowed for a hybrid approach, giving me the chance to examine both the similarities and differences, and to celebrate Native American culture with my students.

Double Ball

Double Ball was a game traditionally played by Native Americans across North America, particularly by women. Some stories credit the Moon with giving this game to women, who played it exclusively throughout the United States. The exception to this is among the tribes in Northern California, where the men played it. The name “double ball” comes from the two balls attached to each other. Players pick them up using a stick and pass to teammates by throwing and catching with the stick alone. Under no circumstances can the ball be touched with the hands.

To score, there was usually a wicket or target. The player could either touch it with the stick and balls or throw at it. Playing areas were large. Some accounts describe fields around 100 yards long. Others say they stretched up to a mile. Older versions used a single pole that could be touched, thrown at, or thrown over. A more modern version, played by the Chippewa, now uses two poles with a crossbar connecting them. For scoring, if the ball was thrown under the crossbar, it counted as one point. Over the bar counted as two, and wrapping the bar as three.

Called “Papaskawanag” by the Chippewa, one version reverses this scoring system. Over the crossbar is one, under is two, and wrapped is three. This difference may stem from the idea that throwing over the goal is unguardable, while throwing under could be blocked by the other team, making it more difficult and therefore worth more. A game begins with all players raising their sticks, after which the ball is thrown into the middle.

Equipment varied among tribes. The Chippewa used one long piece of buckskin, about 18 inches long, to cover two balls at each end. The sticks were around 44 inches and painted red. The Cree used two oblong balls covered in buckskin, joined by a thong, to make a double ball 24 inches long. The sticks usually had a curve at the end to catch the double ball. One version of the ball used buffalo hide stuffed with buffalo hair and sewn together with sinew. Sticks were often measured using the player’s own body to ensure a proper fit. Placed at the hip, the stick should reach the extended arm, with about three hands up from one end for the handle.

“The primary rules were: all players must have their own sticks and must not hit other players. They can only be used for checking the ball and picking the ball up to run to the goal.” “Many Indigenous groups played Double Ball or Nobbies, including the Cree, Blackfoot, Inuit, Assiniboine, and Skowkale.” The game was physically demanding, requiring tremendous cardiovascular capability to cover such long distances. The game promoted health among the women who played it, but the cardiovascular demands were too high for elderly women who did not play. However, the game's health-promoting benefits likely helped those women reach old age. The game also often involved stakes, as it was a large part of trading, gambling, and settling disputes among tribes.

Since Double Ball was played exclusively by women in many regions, men were not allowed to play or even watch. This may have served as a rite of passage for girls and women in the tribe. According to Plains Indian stories, a doubleball game would often be called by a woman whose husband was not treating her well. Women in the camp would come together for a tough game to show the men their power and strength. The men would watch and tease the man whose wife called the game. It was said he usually treated his wife better after that.

Regionally, there were variations in participation. On the East Coast and among Plains Indians, this game was exclusively for women. However, in the West, including northern California, Oregon, and Washington, men also played this game, which may have gone by a different name, such as the Yurok Stick Game. The Cree referred to the game as “Puseekowwahnuk.” According to the International Traditional Games Society, “there is no right way to play double ball, just different ways.”

The Yurok Stick Game

The Yurok Stick game, played by Native Americans in Northern California during the Salmon festival, resembles many aspects of double ball, but also has notable differences. In one video, all the players were young boys on a sand field. The sand is necessary because this version allows for wrestling moves like grapples, takedowns, and slams. Players drop their sticks to lock up opponents, as teams try to wrestle down the other’s fastest player, who attempts to break free to get the ball and score.

In the Yurok stick game, when a dispute arose, the angry parties would go to a tribal elder for help. Sometimes the elder would not decide. Instead, the dispute would be settled with a game in which the combatants took turns throwing rocks at each other until someone gave up and "won the argument." If there were disagreements between tribes, the stick game could be used to avoid war. Even though the game was violent, the intent was to win, not to kill, which ultimately saved lives. The winner of the game was considered right; the loser was wrong and had to give restitution. Words were not enough; it had to be work or payment.

Players were allowed to participate once they were twelve years old, which is when most people begin puberty. In the Yurok stick game, it was exclusively for men, and “roughhousing” was looked down upon for women. This stands in contrast to double ball in other areas, where it was primarily a girls’ and women’s game. In the double-ball version, player contact is present but not a defining feature of the game, unlike in the Yurok stick game.

The Yurok stick game symbolizes young bucks in rut. Like deer locking antlers and wrestling for dominance, players grab each other and use the stick to pin opponents. The sticks are carved from wood. Instead of a double ball, two carved hazel pieces are attached by a string to make tassels. When the stick holds the tassels, it represents the deer's male reproductive organs. Hazel wood was chosen because it bends and hooks naturally, making it ideal for a playing stick. It starts soft for carving, but becomes hard and strong when dry.

The game and its training lasted year-round. Training included lifting and running with heavy stones and wrestling with large logs to build strength. Younger men played the most competitive games. Older men would continue to play recreationally as exercise after their prime. Before important games, players often trained intensely and fasted. They carried heavy stones up and down the beach and reflected in sacred spaces.

To score, players attempted to fling the tassel over a designated line, as in rugby or American football, with scoring zones. The tassel had to be thrown or flung with the stick. Players were not allowed to pick it up and run. After each point, teams would switch sides and play again. Three points are won in a round, and the first team to win two rounds wins the match. Games could last for days, if not longer. Traditionally, teams consisted of three players called scratchers, runners, and anchor men.

The scratcher served as the leader, like a quarterback or point guard, controlling the flow of the game and often being the primary scorer. Speed and quickness were most important for this role, and smaller players could excel. Runners and anchor men engaged physically in each round. The runner attempted to break free and support the scratcher, while the anchor, typically the largest player, worked to immobilize the opposing runner, acting like a defender or goalie.

While the game was very rough, there were clear boundaries. Players could not use their sticks on an opponent’s neck or face, as this was dishonorable and strongly condemned. Using the stick to pin an opponent was acceptable. Sometimes players would rub the stick against an opponent’s torso to cause discomfort and force them to quit. The shape of the tassel could vary. Some designs flew better when tossed, while others balanced better for control. Sticks were typically sized so that they reached the player’s hip from the ground. These unique rules and equipment defined a challenging sport with clear marks of honor and skill.

In modern versions of the game, there is often one coach per player on a team, who simultaneously coaches and referees, especially during wrestling exchanges. It was heavily frowned upon to try to break an opponent’s stick. Sportsmanship is a core component of the game. Trash-talking and bragging were frowned upon, and even spectators were expected to remain respectful while cheering for their team. Historically, these expectations were enforced, and anyone who broke them could be removed.

This emphasis on sportsmanship existed because the outcomes of games could significantly impact people’s lives when games were used to settle conflicts. If the tassels were touched by hand, the offending team would automatically lose, and the tassels would have to be offered and burned. In earlier times, inter tribal marriages were common, making it even more important to avoid war, as conflicts could directly affect relatives and children across tribes.

In modern times, kids are learning the Yurok stick game at camps as a tool for managing anger and aggression, especially among young boys. They also make everything from scratch, from the stick to the tassel. This requires carving and sanding with hand tools. Paying attention not to cut oneself while carving and the time it takes to braid are ways to practice concentration. These camps also encourage mentorship of young men, many of whom are missing a central male figure in their lives due to drugs or violence. Trying to bring this game back is also a form of manhood training so that generations of young men are not lost.

During westward expansion, the stick game almost disappeared because many of the men who would have been playing the game were systematically prohibited from practicing or playing the stick game in an attempt to extinguish their heritage and culture for assimilation into white society. Historically, Native American men were killed or removed from their communities, and the loss of that leadership and mentorship led many young men toward drugs and crime. This movement is working to rebuild that structure and address generational trauma.

Preserving the game also supports the preservation of customs, language, and culture. In the camps, they teach ceremonial dances and rituals associated with the game. As one coach put it, “If we don’t teach it, it goes away. And too much has already gone away.” Rituals before and after the game may include songs, dances, and prayers to support the players and their success. Ceremonial dress may include feathers, painted faces, and symbolic clothing representing animal spirits or ancestors. Music and drumming create an atmosphere of focus and shared energy.

Before an important stick game, players often completed specific preparation, including carrying heavy stones along the beach and fasting in reflection. A gambling card game was often played before the stick game. Handshakes were required before and after the game. Before the game, it was necessary to acknowledge the opponent. After, it was to confirm that the matter was settled. Once the game ended, there was no more discussion. The outcome stood.

There also appears to be a training component involving running with the stick held in the mouth, as shown in video footage resembling a relay race. The American Indian Preservation Fund funded this video. The Yurok Stick Game dates back to pre-Columbian times and was played by the Yurok Tribe, native to the coastal regions of Northern California, especially around the Klamath River. Similar games were and are played by neighboring tribes, including the Hupa, Karuk, and Tolowa, across regions of California and Oregon.

Conclusion

Looking back on teaching these games, the experience has come full circle. What once felt clunky and hard to implement became something much more effective with a better understanding of the skills involved and a shift in how the game was structured for students. Using smaller games, focusing on core skills, and embracing the uniqueness of the equipment made all the difference.

Across my studies of Native American games, clear patterns continue to emerge. It is striking how often Native American cultures gravitated toward using a stick in sport. Examples include double ball, the Yurok stick game, lacrosse, stickball, Chunkey, snow snake, and shinny. Whether the stick is used to throw, to carry, or to control an object that should not be touched by hand, it becomes an extension of the body. In many cases, that object is treated as sacred during play. While these games did not necessarily evolve from one another, they seem to have developed alongside each other, with shared ideas and occasional cultural exchange.

Betting or gambling was often a component of these games as well. Taking chances was part of life, and there was an acceptance of fate within that risk. These were not just games for entertainment. They often carried real consequences.

In some cases, these sports were used to resolve conflict and avoid war and death. The outcome of the game could carry the same weight as a battle's outcome. When the game ended, the matter was settled. There were no lingering arguments, no revisiting the issue later. The result stood, and life moved forward. Now these ancient games are being brought back to move Native American life forward by remembering and embracing their roots through ceremony and sport.

Materials:

·    An ample open space (such as a gym or field)

·    Lots of hockey sticks, batons, or even sticks you can forage in your environment.

·    Several double balls

o  A double is made with a long sock, two tennis balls (one per end), and a rubber band folded over tightly.

·    A pole, a garbage can, a mini-goal, or even a tree for the goal in double ball

o  For the Yurok Stick rules, they just have to flick the ball past a line.

Minimum Number of Students Needed: This lesson can be done with as few as four students. For full-sized classes, split the playing area into four and spread them out so there are four simultaneous games. Even games of two versus two or three versus three are preferred.

Prior Knowledge: The students should have learned about Native Americans or be studying North America.