The original intent of gladiator matches was to commemorate the dead. Still, over time it turned into a celebration of riches and provided a distraction for the people of Rome. In its early days, small gladiator bouts could inspire Roman soldiers during a military campaign and worship and sacrifice to the gods. Later, gladiator games would honor fallen heroes and brethren, sponsored by wealthy aristocrats (for political gain). Historical battles would often be reenacted, creating widespread and effective historical fiction easily digestible for massive crowds. National pride was fostered through this form of “edutainment.”

Gladiator games were also an effective political tool for the aristocracy during the days of the Republic. They would use the funerals of famous Romans or important relatives as a reason to throw a lavish gladiatorial celebration. This was for self-promotion and advertising for their political campaigns. Julius Caesar threw one of the most lavish gladiator games for his father (who had been dead for twenty years) to cement his popularity before becoming emperor. After his assassination and the Roman Civil War, Augustus formalized the gladiator games as a permanent fixture of Roman culture as a civic and religious duty. The games would now be a political tool for the emperor to assert divine right instead of individuals from the aristocracy using it for their political will. As the empire converted to Christianity, the games were seen as sinful displays of murder, with gladiators performing ancient pagan sacrifice rituals. This was not in line with newly adopted views of Christianity and would spell the end of the games.

The term gladiator comes from its most popular weapon of choice, a short sword called the gladius. Therefore, gladiator would mean swordsman. The gladius was the “weapon that conquered the world” for the Roman Empire when paired with the scotum or giant tower shield. The gladius was versatile because it was used one-handed as a stabbing and chopping weapon. It was not so impressive in one-on-one combat without a shield and would lose to a long sword. However, paired with a massive shield, it was the perfect weapon for counter-stabbing when the initial attack was blocked.

There were voluntary and involuntary ways of becoming a gladiator. If one chose to be a gladiator, it was usually done to avoid military service. Early in the Roman Empire, a citizen was to serve in the military for ten years. This service increased to sixteen, twenty, and twenty-five years as time passed. Becoming a gladiator could have been seen as a preferable fate to serving in the military by that point. Many gladiators began their careers as prisoners of war or slaves. Technically those who were sentenced to death could be seen as gladiators. Still, since their death was guaranteed, they acted more as fodder for the “professional” gladiators and beasts. The purses for winning could be huge after notable wins, which could generate riches for a free person or pay off the debt of the slave to purchase their freedom.

There were many different types of gladiators, each equipped with their specific armor and weapons. The gladiator’s armor could symbolize mythic creatures or monsters. For example, a classic sea monster armor set would be pitted against a fisherman gladiator with a net and trident. Many gladiators’ battles followed the formula or trope of the fearsome barbarian with exotic armor and weaponry versus the stoic Roman soldier. As the empire expanded and the feared barbarian lands became part of the Roman territory, the former “barbarian class” of gladiator was renamed (so as not to offend the assimilated peoples). It made a staple of the type of gladiator that competed in the arena.

Before the contest, the crowd could look at the gladiators for free (almost like a pre-fight weigh-in), building anticipation for the match. Amphitheaters and coliseums were built in circular shapes for even viewing so everyone could be seen for voting. The Coliseum of Rome was completed around 96 AD, which initiated a hundred days of gladiator games. It could hold upwards of 50,000 people, was twelve stories tall, and had over 80 entrances and exits. Seating charts were based on social class but were not strictly enforced (except for the senators sitting in the first row). Events were often sold with tickets, and free seats were given away for various reasons (lotteries or prizes). Like today, ticket scalpers and a whole sub-economy depended on the games. Like modern fight cards, gladiator contests would be advertised beforehand with information about the matchups and amenities for the crowd (usually food and drink). More detailed gambling statistics and betting options will be released on the day of the contest. Like modern-day soccer hooligans, Roman people often created clubs based on a type of gladiator. The rivalries eventually turned violent enough that Nero put a ten-year ban on a particular type of gladiator to quell the riots.

The typical ceremony began with music, followed by images of the gods, a presentation of the arms and armor, and finally, the presentation of the gladiators themselves. The actual entertainment began with animal hunting and fighting, followed by ceremonial executions and comedic battles, which still could end lethally. Before the actual gladiator fights, warm-up matches and an official inspection of the armor and weapons (often highly ornate and decorated) would be awarded to exceptional individuals.

Gladiator school was difficult, and the trainees led a Spartan lifestyle. The very first gladiator schools not only trained gladiators but also Legion soldiers. The training involved using weapons made of wood, and techniques were tailored to the type of gladiator one would be. Different weapons and armor dictated the training style of the gladiator. Left-handed gladiators had a massive advantage as they were trained to fight right-handed opponents. Still, right-handed gladiators were only taught to fight right-handed opponents. This advantage for the “southpaw” was well documented in different epitaphs and graffiti. Sleeping quarters for the gladiators were jail cells, and they were released only to eat and train. A decent perk was the recovery methods used for all the hard training, which included massages and alternating hot/cold baths. The food was plentiful, and they ate three times a day. They would also have an extensive banquet before game day, serving as their potential last meal. Food consisting of animal proteins, vegetables, and grains was a gladiator’s diet staple. Still, it would change to a vegetarian diet the closer they got to fight time. Gladiators would eat more grains, specifically more and barley and less wheat, to gain fat weight, especially around the chest and belly, to protect muscle and vital organs. With some fat padding, a superficial cut would not damage muscle and hinder the gladiator’s movement. The cuts and blood would look more impressive to the crowd.

Gladiators typically fought 3-5 times a year; the actual fights lasted anywhere from 10-20 minutes. Still, they could be considerably shorter for the more heavily armored gladiators (who would tire out more easily carrying all the extra weight). A gladiator fight card featured anywhere from 10-15 fights per match. The most respected and loved match was between two highly skilled gladiators. Gladiators killing less skilled slaves or prisoners was not as popular because of the lack of challenge. After a skilled gladiator match, a surprise opponent could immediately challenge the victor of the previous match. This would raise excitement and suspense for the crowd. It also saved on costs for the promoter, who would not pay an extra fee for the second match (obviously to the disapproval of the gladiator who is forced to fight again). Former gladiators were often hired as referees, who not only officiated but also helped orchestrate the most exciting fights by knowing when to let the action persist or provide rest to the combatants. Music would accompany the fights, with drums or trumpets emphasizing when contact was made. The music could help inspire gladiators, create frenzied crescendos of combat, and essentially make an engaging soundtrack.

Gladiators could either win through their opponent’s submission or by killing them. A gladiator who won could receive even more prize money for an entertaining fight. The most spectacular wins might even release a slave gladiator from bondage, represented by the editor (master of the games) giving a wooden sword to the gladiator. When a gladiator retired, they also received a wood sword, sometimes the one they trained with. This symbolizes that they need not fight anymore and risk their life for Rome. The editor ultimately decided life or death for the winning and losing gladiator. Editors could spare the life of the loser or order their death, or award double victories for spectacular stalemates. The editor usually took their cue from the crowd when choosing the winning gladiator (if there was a tie) or if a gladiator who submitted was worthy of keeping alive. The famous thumbs up and thumbs down (however, probably not historically accurate) were done to signal these verdicts. Later in the empire, when gladiator demand was at an all-time high, the option for mandatory gladiator execution of the losing gladiator was removed.

If a gladiator was killed in combat, the lanista (the master and trainer of the gladiator) might be “given up to fifty times the lease price” as compensation. Even though gladiators fought each other, they often created unions, which would ensure proper burials of fallen gladiators as well as compensation to the family of the deceased gladiator. Theoretically, most gladiators survived their first fights, which makes business sense because each gladiator costs a lot of money to train and feed. The consistent killing was usually for prisoners of war or fugitives. Gladiators may have trained to wound without killing, similar to how professional wrestling uses spectacular moves that look lethal but shouldn’t permanently injure the wrestler. With all these considerations in mind, the average life of a gladiator was still only in the mid-twenties.

Experienced and honored gladiators had their own cemeteries, which acted almost like a hall of fame. The gravestones displayed the record of wins and losses and carvings of the weapons used by that particular gladiator. Wealthy editors would often commission art to depict a famous battle in effigy. Slain gladiators often had inscriptions on their graves, which blamed their loss on misfortune or the God Nemesis. A tombstone would rarely acknowledge the skill of the gladiator who defeated them, thereby preserving their honor.

A gladiator who lost might choose death to redeem their poor performance and dishonor, which everyone in attendance saw as incredibly virtuous. The killing blow would be given to the kneeling gladiator in the neck. While brutal, this was seen as ultimate redemption, and they received a ceremonial burial. Prisoners were condemned to death, and lowly slaves were treated poorly post-death. Many of their remains show evidence of their skull being crushed, one method used to test if they were dead. This would undoubtedly cause death if the individual were still alive. An actor portraying the underworld god would come out with a large mallet to “prove” death.

There were female gladiators called gladiatrix. They were first used as either comedic relief or to hunt small animals. However, over time, the popularity of the female gladiators grew as they adopted personas based on the mythic Amazons (or even goddesses themselves). Similar to the trajectory of modern mixed martial arts, women’s combat was initially not taken seriously but would eventually produce some of the biggest stars of the time. The gladiatrix still had to do the same training as their male counterparts and was held to the same standards and regulations. Part of the rise of the female gladiator can be attributed to the Antiochene Olympic Games, which featured female and male athletes.

Amazing discoveries on the life of gladiators were made from cities covered in volcanic ash and advanced imaging that allowed scientists to view archaeological sites without excavating. Plenty of art depicts the gladiator games’ life, death, rules, and regulations. So much of the history is known through paintings and graffiti throughout the Roman Empire Agoras. Souvenirs sold during the games have also survived as artifacts found by archaeologists. The contracts and agreements used in the lease of gladiators helped explain some of the subtleties of Roman law. Laws applied specifically to gladiators revealed much about how citizenship, punishment, social class, money, and government work were conducted.

Roman rulers would struggle with the nature of gladiator games. Was it ruining the morals of society and creating bloodthirsty gluttons? Sometimes gladiators were troublemakers since there were slave revolts led by famous gladiators. The most well-known was Spartacus, which had several movie adaptions based on his life. In contrast, the gladiator was seen as the ultimate representation of stoicism as they accepted death face-to-face. They transcend their station to become an ideal of courage and dignity for the populace to emulate. Inspired by their heroic feats, many emperors battled in the arena as gladiators, almost always with wooden swords. The fights were fixed. Many ancient historians were critical of the emperors who did this, as it seemed to be only a cheap display of power.

To the Roman people, gladiators were a dichotomy. The gladiator represented the highest ideal of martial ability, and even in death, the gladiator was admired. Much art has been created memorializing gladiators, from lowly clay figurines to masterworks from the era’s best artists. Many accounts of women lusting after them, even the ugliest and scarred gladiator. Their sweat was collected and mixed with perfume as an aphrodisiac. Even though gladiators were highly admired, calling someone a gladiator would be seen as a vile insult. The gladiator profession was a lower-class institution even though it had the potential to make large sums of money. It was akin to prostitution or a modern-day actor in the adult film industry. Popular with many fans but simultaneously looked down upon.

The ultimate purpose of the gladiator games was summarized by the Roman poet Juvenal, who coined the term Panem Et Circensis. This translates to bread and circuses. If the Roman populace was superficially entertained and well-fed, it would not care what the government was doing, especially when it was not acting in its best interest. The gladiator games will be remembered as a successful form of sport, entertainment, and a savvy political tool, boasting popularity that lasted nearly millennia under the Roman Republic and Empire.

Materials: 

·      Enough space for the first lesson to move comfortably and take long lunge steps. The second and third lessons require more space, so nothing is hit during the “sword” swinging.

·      For the second and third lessons, the students needed something to represent a gladius: the Roman short sword. Options include paper towel rolls or small pool noodles. Of course, one could get Styrofoam toy swords, but ultimately it comes down to time and budget. In a pinch, a yardstick, ruler, long drumstick, or even just a stick from the outside would suffice.

·      For lesson #3, you will need a pool noodle and a hula-hoop per pair of students.

Minimum Number of Students Needed: You could do the first two lessons with one student and the third with as few as two.

Age: All Ages