Introduction for Chunkey

The Native American Game Chunkey (also known as Chunky, Chenco, Tchung-kee, or the Hoop and Stick Game) has similarities to sports like shuffleboard and bocce ball. Another version of this game was played in the Northeast, known as the hoop-and-pole game. The game aims to get a throwing spear as close as possible to a moving disc-shaped target. One player would roll the stone, and another player would throw their spear before the stone stopped. The spear closest to it would receive a point, and in some varieties, two points of the spear went into a hole carved in the middle of the stone. There were many ways this game was played, depending on the region and the Native American group playing. These groups included the creators, the Cahokians, and other tribes like the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Mandan, to name a few.

Some versions were more skill-based, with limited movement, so accuracy came at a premium. In contrast, other versions required running and more closely resembled hunting techniques. For example, some versions called for an underhand throwing motion to make the spear slide on the ground, while others replicated the javelin-style spear toss. Additionally, some Chunkey sticks had markings or leather pieces, which helped determine the round's scoring. However, all versions used a rolling stone as the target and spear-shaped projectiles as the throwing object. Finally, games were played to a point total as low as seven (a significant number for Cherokee) or as high as twenty-one for other tribes.

The game originated in the Cahokia region in southern Illinois, across the border from St. Louis, Missouri. While it is still a several-hour drive, all things considered, this area is relatively close to me. It's close enough that students from my school will visit Monks Mound, North America's tallest pyramid. Its impressive structure served as a gathering place for Native Americans from across the country to meet, trade, barter, converse, argue, and more. It is unknown how the different tribes combined to form a central authority capable of creating such a massive structure and the surrounding urban town. This capital would be the catalyst for a cultural exchange rivaling those of Mesoamerica's empires. There were surprising similarities with Mesoamerican peoples, including cultural traditions of human sacrifice, the construction of giant obelisks, tales of supernatural beings, and advanced astronomic observations. This Mississippian culture also spurred the agricultural revolution in maize cultivation, which significantly changed diets and enabled a population boom.

Emissaries from Cahokia presented themselves with a Chunkey stone in one hand and a war club in the other. This symbolizes the decision presented to the people they interacted with: the Chunkey stone is peace, and the war club is violence. The Chunkey game would allow the Mississippian people to enforce peace, or Pax Cahokia, within large regions of North America. This is inevitably how the sport spread so far across North America and even into bordering parts of Mexico. Chunkey was a popular game and a symbol of peace and unity between the tribes.

Similar to the Mesoamerican Ball Game of Central America, this game had the essential feature of settling disputes between individuals or possibly even tribes at the local level. This is a remarkably peaceful solution for conflict resolution that, most importantly, avoids bloodshed and death. As long as individuals and tribes abided by the outcome, this was an excellent way to address territorial disputes, hunting rights, and other important issues of the day. Also, as with the Mesoamerican Ball Game, there was extensive betting on the outcome. This feature of the game is so intertwined with its history that it would be disingenuous not to mention its prominence in Chunkey's game culture. One fact that always popped up within my research was that it was common for players to become destitute after betting everything and losing, which could result in desperation and suicide. While I do mention to my lower elementary students that the Native Americans often gambled on the outcome of the game (the way people gamble on games today), I use it as a cautionary tale to not gamble with anything you don’t want to lose, while not volunteering the suicide component of the story.

The primary materials of the game were a rolling stone and throwing spears. The rolling stones ranged in diameter from 2 to 8 inches. They resembled modern hockey pucks, sometimes with a small hole in the middle. Another interesting feature of the stone was that the center was carved so that it was either convex or concave relative to the stone. These stone carvings were done so well that they are hard to replicate today without machine tools, making these stones works of art. The spears would range in length from six to ten feet. The wood was sourced from trees available in the area. It was often made of hickory or poplar wood.

One will find a falcon dancer and warrior within the traditional iconography found in artifacts associated with the game Chunkey. This adorned figure is usually portrayed as rolling the playing stone. Often, there are throwing spears, which may appear broken, possibly symbolizing the end of the game. As in the game, many variations of this figure are found throughout the Southeast and Midwest of North America. Additionally, Chunkey players often wore ritualistic clothes and face paint depending on the importance of the game.

The game was famous for nearly a thousand years (600 – 1500 CE). However, there is a modern revival movement to learn and play the game amongst several Native American populations. One of those tribes is the Cherokee, who most commonly make their spears of river cane. River cane was used in making almost everything for the Cherokee people, and it became a symbol of the people themselves. According to Danny McCarter, a museum interpreter at the Cherokee National History Museum, river cane can be ripped up, transplanted, and moved. Yet, it will always grow and prosper, analogous to the Cherokee people.

We play Chunkey in PE for several reasons. First, it is a lot of fun, and your lower elementary students will love it. The students also get a deep dive into a sport closely tied to the culture of Native American tribes living in the Midwest and Southeast of the United States. We play the game to honor Native American heritage and to preserve a fun and fundamental part of the culture of many tribes across the land that is now the United States. I hope your students enjoy this sport as much as mine did!

Introduction for Snow Snake

Snow Snake is a Native American game where a spear-like stick is slid as far as possible down a snowy track; the person who sends the snake the farthest wins. While the rules are simple, the game itself carries deep cultural, historical, and practical meaning. The channel size can vary widely by tribe and game version. Some games use a narrow channel, just big enough for a golf ball, while others use a wide one for a sled. The Ho-Chunk, for example, used the narrow channel when playing their version.

Today, Snow Snake is used by modern Native American communities to reconnect with their heritage, which was often stripped away along with their land. Playing the game helps reclaim identity and tradition. Some historians believe the game may date back to the last glacial period, around 20,000 years ago. In cold climates, when hunters were using heavy spears, there may have been times when sliding a spear along the snow was more effective than throwing it, especially if a herd of deer was standing in chest-deep snow. In this way, the game reinforces techniques that were once used for hunting.

Another origin story suggests the game began as a means of communication. When the ice was too thin to walk across, people could write a message on a stick and slide it across the surface to someone far away. Without needing to shout, communication could still take place. There is also an English translation of the game's original name, “the medicine game,” which raises the question of whether it could also have been used to deliver medicine across otherwise unreachable distances.

The snow snake shows the value of craftsmanship. Traditionally, it is handmade from wood with even grain. The wood is carved into a long pole with one end shaped into a head, sometimes like a snake. The bottom half is shaved smooth and treated with a special liquid or wax to make it glide on snow. These blends are often kept secret because they give the maker an advantage. This is considered fair, since it reflects the maker’s skill. Whoever makes the best snake gets that edge.

Snakes are also decorated with symbols. This serves two purposes. It celebrates culture and identity, and it allows players to identify their own snake among others during competition. Modern snow snakes are often made from boards about an inch and a half in circumference, then smoothed and shaped. While many people now use tools like belt sanders to speed up the process, others intentionally use non-powered tools such as planers and razor edges to finish the piece. There is also a belief that a snow snake improves with age. Years of use, waxing, and varnishing make it glide more easily over time. Like a seasoned cast-iron pan, newer is not better. A much-used tool is better for the game.

This idea reflects a broader value. Time matters. From craftsmen choosing slower methods to the belief that objects improve with age, there is an understanding that rushing is not the way. This perspective carries over into life more broadly, where elders are revered, and the fast pace of modern life is not ideal. Snow snakes typically range from six to seven feet in length, depending on the size of the thrower. Hardwood is preferred for durability and performance.

In versions of the game that use a channel, the track must be carefully prepared. Snow is dug out so that the channel sits about stomach to chest height for most players. A line is stretched tightly from end to end to ensure the track is straight, and then the channel is carved along it.

Before play begins, a small log is pulled through the channel to smooth and prepare the surface, almost like a log Zamboni. This tool can also be used during play for quick repairs if the track gets damaged. An important note for builders: make the channel longer than they think they need. A well-thrown snow snake can travel hundreds of feet.

In games played without a track, the challenge increases. Throwers must have a steady hand to keep the stick from stabbing into the snow. Instead, it must glide smoothly along the top layer. Games are played in rounds, and the first player to reach four points wins. In each round, the thrower whose snake travels the farthest earns a point. If a player has multiple snakes that land farther than everyone else’s, they earn additional points for each of those throws. This means a player could win the game in a single round if their four throws are the four farthest. However, for the sake of competition and enjoyment, most players hope this does not happen so that there is at least another round to make adjustments.

Marking sticks are placed at the end of each throw to identify whose snake went the farthest. Teams often compete in groups of four, called corners. There are also divisions such as mudcat for shorter sticks and long stick for longer versions. There is also a separation of roles. The goaler is responsible for making and maintaining the snakes. The player is the one who throws them.

Many northern tribes have played Snow Snake. While it is widely believed, according to the Institute of American Indian Studies, to have originated with the Haudenosaunee, commonly known as the Iroquois, it has spread across many regions. The modern name “snow snake” comes from the wiggling, snake-like motion the spear makes as it moves along the snow.

An interesting variation in the Haudenosaunee version involves players shouting at the snake as it travels. Members of one team may yell for it to slow down, while others encourage it to keep going. It is a fascinating parallel to sports like curling, where players influence the object's movement. In this case, however, it is done with voice rather than physical contact.

Played by Native Americans living farther north, Snow Snake was a way to pass the time during the long winter months, but it was never just a game. It connected people to survival skills, craftsmanship, communication, and culture. Today, it continues to serve as a powerful way for communities to reconnect with and reclaim their heritage.

Materials:

·    An ample open space (such as a gym or field)

·    Lots of hula hoops

o  At least one per three students

·    Lots of pool noodles

o  You should have enough for two-thirds of your class at any given time. One per student is best.

o  For organizational purposes, if the pool noodle colors can match the hula-hoop colors, it will make your life easier.

·    Rubber disc dots

o  Same number (and color, if possible) as the hula hoops

Minimum Number of Students Needed: This lesson can be done with as few as three students. For full-sized classes, make groups of three and spread them out through the playing area. If resources are limited, groups of four can work as well.

Prior Knowledge: The students should have learned about Native Americans or be studying North America.